Which long-term effect has been observed from radiation exposure?

• A. Embryological effects
• B. Cataracts
• C. Life-span shortening
• D. All of the above

Answer: (D)

Late effects from ionizing radiation can show up long after the exposure, with outcomes that depend on dose, tissue, and timing. Embryological effects occur if exposure happens during pregnancy, potentially causing fetal malformations or growth issues depending on when and how much dose is received. Cataracts arise years later as a dose-dependent change in the lens, a well-established late effect of radiation exposure. Life-span shortening has been observed at high exposure levels, reflecting increased risk of radiation-related diseases that can reduce overall survival. Because all of these have been observed as long-term consequences of radiation, the best answer is that all of the above can occur.